Selected Papers on small island environments

Conservation and development issues for Italian small islands A multicriteria analysis survey on the Aeolian archipelago

Modern integrated techniques of environmental analysis are helpful to address specific processes of social-economic growth, form favoring a better quality of life, to sustaining welfare standards for future generations, providing that the development process will respect people's expectations.

The need to compare different territorial policies has justified the introduction of several multicriteria evaluation techniques into environmental research.These methods are based on numerical manipulation of heterogeneous information, that varies in terms of reference scale and type of measure.

Recent investigations have been focused on general conditions of Salina, the "green island" of the Aeolian archipelago located to north-east of Sicily. Such studies were aimed to explore the possibility of implementing conservation strategies compatible with human needs, landscape preservation and sustainable economic development.

Multicriteria concordance and discordance analysis have been used to compare four alternative plans for the socio-economic development of Salina. These plans lie between extreme alternatives, from total protection of natural resources to maximum economic development based on tourism.

The plans are compared to each other on the basis of fourteen criteria that reflect the socio-environmental perception of Salina inhabitants. A representative sample of Salina inhabitants, stratified for professional activity, sex, age and municipality, have been invited to answer to questions on the environment, society and economy of their island, and to compare it to the reality of the other islands of the Aeolian archipelago.

The chosen approach seems particularly fruitful because of its flexibility: it offers to decision makers the chance to manage heterogeneous data not easily quantifiable. Such a "soft" information allows to evaluate more precisely environmental conditions, and to perform a more balanced choice among alternative plans of economic development.

Compatibility between conservation and development in small islands Concordance and discordance analysis applied to data from Salina (Aeolian islands)

Several multicriteria evaluation techniques have been developed since the 1970s. The need of comparing different territorial policies has justified their introduction in environmental research. These methods base on numerical manipulation of heterogeneous information, that differ each other in terms of reference scale and type of measure (continuous, ordinal, qualitative, binary,...).

Small islands, because of their intrinsic fragility, seem appropriate environment for applications of multicriteria evaluation techniques. During the past years, several diversified investigations focused on general conditions of Salina, the "green island" of the Aeolian Archipelago. Such studies, within an interdisciplinary project, aimed to explore the possibility of implementing conservation strategies that were compatible with human needs, landscape preservation and sustainable economic development.

This is a preliminary work, in which two different multicriteria evaluation techniques, namely concordance analysis and discordance analysis, are applied. They are used to compare five alternative plans for social-economic development of Salina island. These plans lie between two extreme alternatives: total protection of natural resource, and maximising of economic development based on tourism. The five plans are compared each other on the basis of nineteen relevant criteria that reflect the social-environmental perception of Salina inhabitants.

The approach used in this research seems particularly fruitful, because of its flexibility. It offers to decision makers the opportunity to manage heterogeneous data and information not easily quantifiable. Such soft information is very often extremely important to correctly evaluate environmental conditions and to choose appropriate development plans.

Social-environmental perception in small-islands through a questionnaire to the inhabitants of Salina island (Aeolian archipelago, Italy)

For decades the Aeolian archipelago has been under scientific and economic investigation because of its characteristic as a natural laboratory for studies on human carrying capacity in a highly fragile environment. In these years of ever growing tourism, the need for balanced, accurate planning of the territory is urgent. The political strategies aimed to increase or decrease tourism often have to take into account many requirements, frequently in oppostion, of both the natural environment and the islanders.

Past investigations showed that the strong touristic specificity of the Aeolian islands is mainly due to their natural and landscape beauty. Unfortunately, the phenomenon "tourism" in Salina (26 sq. kilometers, some 12,000 inhabitants), as well as in other Mediterranean isles, is linked to seasonality, and this fact heavily forces the use of natural and human resources around a very short period of time, while in the remaining months lodging facilities and other public structures remain almost abandoned.

With respect to the touristic flux that presently reaches the island, it becomes necessary to understand how much a certain policy, aimed to increase such tendency, would be desirable, and whether this peculiar development would perturb (or, worse, ruin) island's attractiveness. In this case, tourism would lose any possibility to consolidate itself, and unforeseeable effects would follow. As a consequence, economic rearrangements (i.e. "non further incentivation") of any activity depending on tourism will succeed, with a prejudice for any durable and sustainable planning (balance between nature/culture conservation and economic gain).

Modern, integrated techniques of environmental analysis are helpful to address a specific process of social-economic growth: to favour a better quality of life, to sustain the reached standards for future generations, etc. All this, provided that the "development process" will respect the local people and their right expectations, i.e. choices and decisions have to be made together with the inhabitants. Projects of the Aeolian future become reality if, and only if, understood and accepted by those who live and work in the archipelago.

In such a context, the set-up of a multi-specific opinion poll becomes an indispensable instrument for testing any programme of development before to have it operating. For each of the proposed aspects, 130 sample interviewed people, stratified for activity, sex, and Municipality of origin, have been invited to freely express qualitative answers (unknown, minimal, perceptible, consistent, relevant, essential, fundamental) to thirty questions regarding the state of environment, society and economy on their island, and also comparing them to the reality of the other Aeolian islands, and to their own expectations. A condensed abstract of the themes handled in the proposed questionnaire follows.

Preservation of vegetation, and reforestation of Mediterranean "macchia". State and tutelage of faunal patrimony. Protection of coasts and slopes. Seasonal variation of risk from natural catastrophes. Assessment of the territory towards the reduction of environmental pollution. Shortage and seasonal variations in drinkable water demand. Population density. Opportunities of stable jobs. Problems bound up with the old-age population. Spontaneous cultural associations. Cooperative activities in production and tourism sectors. Folklore traditions and local culture expressions. Migration control. The phenomenon of additional (secondary) jobs. Quality and quantity of health and education services. Transportations: connections with the continent (Sicily, rest of Italy) and internal road network. Agriculture: which strategies for which development. Fishing and fish industry: production, export. Real estate: private houses, existing patrimony, new buildings for touristic use. Trades and local handicraft. Management of touristic flux both in absolute, and in non-summer periods.

Does a strategy for effective ecotourism in the small Italian islands exist ?

Ecotourism, defined as "natural history oriented tourism", is becoming a field of primarily interest of both ecological and economic investigations. The term has been usually coupled with a set of characteristics that define an alternative tourism (AT) paradigm, in contrast with the traditional mass tourism (MT), criticized as an often wrong and dangerous form of economic development.

No doubt that countries with emerging economics and areas heavily dependant from the continent for their needs such as small islands, are tempted to rely on this second kind of development, which, at least in the long run, turns out as the worst approach toward sustainable forms of social amelioration.

But also no doubt that unrestricted tourism almost always destroys sooner or later the resources it should be helping to protect. Out of the four basic elements necessary to tourism fitness (economic competitiveness, adequate infrastructures, good accessibility, aggressive marketing), the formula for a lasting tourism industry implies the existence of something really interesting and exciting for the visitors to experience. In such a case a properly managed AT prevents serious environmental damages, and can even enhance cultural richness, by fostering knowledge, skills and lifestyle, and perpetuating the traditional values of indigenous people through the education of outsiders about their culture.

Cultural, historical, social, and educational concerns in small and fragile environments tend to lean toward AT, but specific regulations and policies have to ensure that all the related activities be maintained at environmentally sustainable levels. Poorly planned ecotourism cannot prevent the disruption of wildlife migrations, the build-up of algal growth in water supplies due to improper waste disposal, the depleting effects of hunting and plant collection, the trampling over indigenous cultures, and on.

True ecotourim and well designed interpretative programmes have to carefully assess impacts before development begins, particularly to avoid the tendency for the local people to view their areas as being established for the benefit of foreigners rather than for themselves. Also, if government officials and decision-makers are led to believe that tourist-value sites exist primarlily for economic gain, if and when these expectations are somehow not fulfilled, they may look for more profitable uses.

The 1991 Italian official census has made available new data sets for each one of the Italian Communes, including those that administer the 38 inhabited small islands, mostly located in the Tyrrenian sea. The housing and the job market assets represent important reference points for investigating every island's suitability to develop and maintain in a sustaibable fashion forms of AT decidedly more environmentally sensitive that the MT currently implemented.

This papers shows, through the analysis of ecological, demographic and economic data, some different strategies exhibited in the last ten years by local governments toward the expectation of a kind of tourism much more respectful of the natural heritage.

Abandoned and marginal areas suitable for the production of solar energy. The case of small islands

The Italian small islands (but not only the Italian ones) can become a laboratory where new ecological policies can be tested in the production of energy. These are aimed at establishing a more balanced relationship between man and the environment and between development and conservation.

The results which can be obtained in small and fragile environments can be transferred later on, with suitable adaptations, to other environmental realities, usually less "extreme", but ecologically and sociologically more complex.

In the Eolian archipelago (Sicily, Italy), the islands of Vulcano and Salina are particularly interesting also because of their potentiality in terms of new sources of energy (viz sun and wind).

Salina (26.8 kmq) has an old tradition of crops (basically wine and capers) which have been abandoned or neglected in the last decades because of a considerable process of emigration of young people. The island tourism resources are relevant, but the percentage of houses without electricity in 1981 was still around 45% (in 1971 it was 59%). Nowadays 43% of the agricultural areas are abandoned (without taking into account the cultivable waste land).

Vulcano (21 kmq) was almos uninhabited until the first years of the century; recently it has been characterized by a fast and chaotic development which have played a key-role in attracting tourists, especially from abroad.. In Vulcano, 68% of the agricultural areas are abandoned (without taking into account the cultivable waste land); at present the percentage of houses without electricity is much lower than in Salina.

The availability of energy plays a strategic role in the development of these small environments. In general, at present, the solar and wind power plants, which have been built all around the world, produce electricity at a higher cost than traditional power plants. In all the technologically advanced countries it is already a common belief that in a near future, and mainly in these small environments, the costs of the electricity produced in both the traditional way and the new way will be almost comparable, also in monetary terms.

Already now a large part of the marginal and abandoned areas could be used for the production of solar energy. In these small environments the traditional power plants are not profitable because of their size.

The main benefits which can be expected are: (i) economical recovery of abandoned areas; (ii) end or reduction of emigration; (iii) the feasible use of technological tools that can be modified to fit each particular environment; (iv) respect of the natural and human environment since the solar energy is a "clean energy".

8° Congresso S.It.E. - Parma, settembre 1997
Comunicazione per il Tema/Panel II : Problemi di gestione ecologica dell'ambiente

Abstract

The small islands have been often seen as a laboratory where new ecological policies in the production of energy can be efficiently tested. These are aimed at establishing a more balanced relationship between man and the environment and between development and conservation.

The results which can be obtained in small and fragile environments can be transferred, with suitable adaptations, to other realities, even though ecologically and sociologically more complex.

In the Eolian archipelago, Vulcano and Salina are particularly interesting also because of their potentiality in terms of new sources of energy (sun, wind, waves).

Salina (27 square km) has an old tradition of crops (basically wine and capers) which have been abandoned or neglected in the last decades because of a considerable process of emigration of young people. The island tourism resources are relevant, but the percentage of houses without electricity is around 45% (in 1971 it was 59%). Nowadays 43% of the agricultural areas are abandoned (without taking into account the cultivable waste land).

Vulcano (21 square km) was almos uninhabited until the first years of the century; recently it has been characterized by a fast and chaotic development which had played a key-role in attracting tourists, especially from abroad.. In Vulcano 68% of the agricultural areas are abandoned (plus the cultivable waste land); at present the percentage of houses without electricity is much lower than in Salina.

The availability of energy is somehow a strategic key in the development of these environments. A large amount of marginal and abandoned areas could be used for producing of solar energy. The expected benefits are: (i) economical recovery of abandoned areas; (ii) end or reduction of emigration; (iii) the feasible use of technological tools that can be modified to fit each particular environment; (iv) respect of the natural and human environment since the solar energy is "clean energy".

Key words: Renewable energy, R.E.S., Small islands, Sustainable development

Introduzione

Le piccole isole e i loro molteplici problemi sono da tempo all'attenzione del mondo scientifico e di quello politico (Aa.Vv., 1987). Le loro forme di sviluppo, indipendentemente dalla collocazione geografica, dovrebbero possedere alcune caratteristiche peculiari:

· promuovere l'innovazione per superare le condizioni di marginalità e di isolamento sociale e promuovere iniziative che portino alla introduzione di innovazioni tecnologicamente appropriate alle caratteristiche di questi ecosistemi carenti di risorse strategiche quali energia, acqua, ecc. Sperimentazioni orientate all'uso di energia solare (fotovoltaica) o eolica o geotermica sulle piccole isole vengono esplicitamente raccomandate da tutti gli esperti nei numerosi meeting che anno dopo anno vengono promossi dalle diverse associazioni ambientaliste;

· gestire le risorse in forma integrata per uno sviluppo socio-economico rapido ma bilanciato. Ciò implica il ripensamento e la riqualificazione delle attività turistiche che in moltissime isole rappresentano le uniche attività redditizie. Poiché il tumultuoso sviluppo turistico di molte piccole isole è sottoposto alle imprevedibili fluttuazioni della domanda sul mercato turistico internazionale, è opportuno che a quella turistica vadano affiancate altre attività, di volta in volta diverse, ma modernamente intese e gestite;

· pianificare a lungo termine, poiché lo sviluppo è duraturo (o sostenibile) non solo quando si basa su un accorto sfruttamento di più risorse, ma anche - e soprattutto - se rispetta l'ambiente sul piano naturalistico e culturale (Rossi e Giavelli, 1989).

Energia per lo sviluppo delle piccole isole italiane

Le isole minori italiane abitate sono 37, distribuite in 36 Comuni, 11 province e 6 regioni. I residenti stabili sono circa 200.000, ma ad essi vanno aggiunte circa 20 milioni di presenze turistiche annue poiché quasi tutte le piccole isole hanno individuato nel turismo di massa stagionale una fonte di reddito consistente e apparentemente "facile". Basti pensare che la percentuale media di addetti al turismo è passata dal 15% del 1971 al 19% del 1981, al 24% del 1991 e in 6 isole ha già superato il 30%. Entro queste realtà è in atto un profondo cambiamento determinato dalle reazioni "spontanee" delle popolazioni residenti alle condizioni di isolamento geografico, marginalità socioeconomica, abbandono del territorio, ecc.

Il patrimonio naturalistico e paesaggistico delle piccole isole italiane, di rilevante importanza scientifica, rappresenta anche un richiamo turistico di grande interesse. Indagini campionarie mirate a questo specifico aspetto hanno dimostrato che oltre il 50% delle presenze turistiche su una isola-tipo è riconducibile all'immagine dell'isola considerata come luogo incontaminato, in cui è ancora possibile il contatto diretto con fenomeni e ritmi stagionali non intaccati dalla civilizzazione (Giavelli e Rossi, 1990). D'altra parte il cosiddetto "turismo verde" è in netto aumento in tutto il mondo occidentale: le comunità naturali e il paesaggio caratteristici delle piccole isole vanno dunque protetti mediante specifiche e accorte politiche gestionali.

Il semplice trasferimento di tecnologie moderne quali, per esempio, nuovi impianti per la produzione di più energia, negli anni passati ha portato, in ambienti marginali, ad esiti spesso deludenti. Fra i motivi di tale insuccesso vanno annoverati (i) gli effetti destabilizzanti e non previsti della tecnologia sugli equilibri naturali ed umani di questi sistemi ambientali particolarmente fragili, (ii) la carenza o mancanza di risorse umane locali in grado di gestire le nuove tecnologie (solo in 7 Comuni insulari la popolazione supera di poco 10.000 abitanti), e (iii) la mancanza di risorse finanziarie locali disponibili per accordare continuità nel tempo allo sforzo di innovazione tecnologica.

D'altra parte l'energia svolge un ruolo strategico per lo sviluppo (Av.Vv., 1997); in ecosistemi delicati la sua carenza, con la conseguente crescente dipendenza dalle importanzioni, può bloccare o distorcere il processo di sviluppo (Charters, 1994), mentre l'innovazione andrebbe promossa con determinazione da tutte le frandi Agenzie internazionali, largamente sostenuta dagli Stati e costantemente governata dalle Amministrazioni territoriali coinvolte.

Nuove politiche ecologico-energetiche a Salina e Vulcano (isole Eolie)

A Vulcano, Salina, Stromboli, Panarea, Alicudi e Lipari sono state installate centrali di piccola potenza. Il consumo energetico delle Eolie nel 1990 era di oltre 11.000 tonnellate-equivalenti di petrolio, senza tener conto dell'olio combustibile per l'industria della pomice di Lipari, cosicchè, rapportato ai residenti, il consumo di energia pro-capite nelle Eolie era, già nel 1980, poco superiore a un terzo di quello medio nazionale (Cavallaro, 1986). Nel frattempo il consumo di energia elettrica nelle Eolie è aumentato, ma è cresciuta anche la media pro-capite nazionale, e dunque questo dislivello rimane tuttora assai pronunciato.

Due isole eoliane sono particolarmente interessanti anche in relazione alle loro potenzialità per la produzione di energie alternative (solare ed eolica). Salina (26.8 Kmq), la più verde delle isole Eolie, vanta una antica tradizione di colture agricole (vini, capperi) quasi abbandonate o trascurate negli ultimi decenni, anche a causa di intensi processi di emigrazione di popolazione giovanile. Le risorse di interesse turistico dell'isola sono assai rilevanti, ma vanno gestite razionalmente attuando, nel contempo e dove possibile, un rilancio in chiave moderna della agricoltura locale. La percentuale di case senza elettricità nel 1981 era il 45% (59% nel 1971). La percentuale stimata di aree agricole abbandonate è attualmente il 43%, senza considerare gli incolti produttivi. Dal 1982 è in atto su quest'isola la sperimentazione di un impianto a sfruttamento eolico (Cavallaro e Maccarone, 1982).

Vulcano (21 Kmq), pressoché disabitata fino agli inizi di questo secolo, negli ultimi anni è stata caratterizzata da uno sviluppo turistico rapido e disordinato che ha già danneggiato quell'ambiente naturale il cui ruolo è stato decisivo nell'attirare turisti, soprattutto stranieri. La percentuale di aree agricole abbandonate è del 68%, senza considerare gli incolti produttivi; la percentuale di case senza elettricità attualmente è assai minore che su Salina.

In effetti queste due isole, appartenenti allo stesso arcipelago, rappresentano due realtà assai diverse nei riguardi dei cambiamenti in atto: Salina è in attesa di idee ed innovazioni che recuperino il passato e promuovano un futuro caratterizzato dalla utilizzazione di più risorse (agricoltura, turismo, ecc.), Vulcano intende percorrere decisamente tutte le tappe di uno sviluppo accelerato basato sull'unica risorsa del turismo.

Energia fotovoltaica su terreni abbandonati e marginali

Tutti gli impianti fotovoltaici realizzati nel mondo producono energia ad un costo maggiore rispetto agli impianti convenzionali. E' però convinzione ormai comune in tutti i Paesi tecnologicamente avanzati che in un futuro molto prossimo (e anzitutto in questi piccoli ambienti insulari) i costi dell'energia prodotta con i due tipi di impianti saranno, anche in termini monetari, pressoché comparabili. Piccole isole quali Salina e Vulcano sembrano possedere le caratteristiche di partenza adatte per una sperimentazione finalizzata al confronto tra vantaggi e svantaggi legati alla produzione convenzionale di energia rispetto a quella fotovoltaica.

Su queste due isole la percentuale di terreni marginali e abbandonati, anche in conseguenza delle fortissime limitazioni pedoclimatiche, è molto elevata. Ben difficilmente, a causa di queste limitazioni, tali terreni potranno essere recuperati alla pratica agricola modernamente intesa.

La produzione di energia fotovoltaica a partire da tali terreni ha molte analogie con il processo di fotosintesi clorofilliana che sta alla base della produttività agricola e, in generale, della funzionalità degli ecosistemi naturali. Le sequenze attraverso cui l'energia radiante solare viene captata dalla lamina fogliare e poi accumulata in frutti, bulbi, rizomi, si presenta simile al processo attraverso cui l'energia solare viene captata da una cella fotovoltaica, trasformata in energia elettrica e immagazzinata negli accumulatori. Secondo alcune stime (Coiante, 1989), il rendimento medio di un processo agricolo (Energia nella sostanza organica prodotta in un anno per mq di terreno / Energia incidente all'anno per mq) si colloca tra lo 0,5% e l'1%, un rendimento piuttosto basso. Spesso la sostanza organica prodotta ha un elevato valore biologico e può generare un reddito monetario anche elevato.

La quantità media di energia solare nell'Italia meridionale, per mq/anno, è di 1.600 KW/ora. Ipotizzando un'efficienza media sul terreno di 6,5%, si ha che un mq di modulo fotovoltaico su suolo attrezzato può produrre in media 100 KW/ora, per cui, i costi attuali, è prevedibile un reddito di circa 10 milioni di lire/anno per un ettaro "trattato" a fotovoltaico. Questa stima dipinge un quadro molto allettante da un punto di vista economico, ma tiene conto solo degli aspetti monetari; nel confrontare l'energia convenzionale con quella fotovoltaica su questi ecosistemi si devono considerare anche aspetti che non possono essere convertiti in unità monetarie:

- effetti sull'ambiente naturale: l'energia fotovoltaica è meno inquinante dell'energia prodotta in impianti convenzionali;

- effetti sull'emigrazione: la "coltivazione" a fotovoltaico di terreni marginali e abbandonati può attenuare o bloccare i fenomeni migratori che destabilizzano la struttura sociale, economica e territoriale delle piccole isole (Cruz et al., 1987);

- effetti sulla gestione del territorio: gli impianti fotovoltaici sono adattabili alle diverse condizioni ambientali, non richiedono una specifica professionalità nella gestione e, in certe situazioni, sono compatibili con qualche forma di coltivazione sui terreni che ospitano gli impianti stessi.

Riferimenti bibliografici